Guides

Short, practical answers to the questions that come up on the shop floor, with the formula behind each one and a link to the calculator.

• How to weld Hardox wear plateA practical guide to welding Hardox wear plate: why preheat depends on grade and thickness, which filler metal to use, hydrogen control, interpass temperature and heat input.
• S355 preheat temperature by thicknessMinimum preheat temperature for welding S355 steel by plate thickness and hydrogen level, calculated with EN 1011-2 Annex C method B (CET). Table for 10–80 mm and H5, H10, H15.
• When to use 309L filler metalWhy 309L (ER309L, EN ISO 14343 23 12 L) is the standard filler for welding carbon or low-alloy steel to austenitic stainless steel, when to choose 309LMo or a nickel alloy instead, and how dilution works.
• How to calculate welding heat inputWelding heat input formula with worked examples: arc energy from voltage, current and travel speed, thermal efficiency factors k per EN 1011-1, and the difference to ASME heat input.
• Carbon equivalent: CE, CET and PcmWhat carbon equivalent means for weldability, the CE(IIW), CET and Pcm formulas, which preheat method uses which, and a worked example for S355J2.
• Hydraulic cylinder force chartHydraulic cylinder force table for standard bores 25–200 mm at 100, 160, 210 and 250 bar, with the formula, rod-side force and how to convert kN to tonnes.
• Steel plate weight chartSteel plate weight table: kg per square metre for 1–50 mm thickness and the weight of standard sheet sizes 1000×2000, 1250×2500, 1500×3000 and 2000×6000 mm, with the formula.
• WPS vs PQR (WPQR)The difference between a welding procedure specification (WPS), a procedure qualification record (PQR / WPQR) and a pWPS, how they relate under EN ISO 15607, 15609-1, 15614-1 and ASME Section IX.